Evaluation of Turkeys Energy Consumption and Resources

Evaluation of Turkeys Energy Consumption and Resources 4. Energy and Environmental outlook of Turkey Energy is accepted as a most important factor in economic development. On the other hand environmental impacts of industrial and economical development becomes more evident in recent years. In order to mitigate the environmental effects of industrial and economical development is to take long term solutions for sustainable development. Therefore, this chapter explains the main characteristics of Turkey’s general energy outlook and environmental indicators. It starts begin to lay out the diversity of Turkey’s conventional energy resources and level of energy consumption (oil, coal, natural gas, etc) including electricity production and consumption. In the second part it analyses environmental impacts of industrial and economical development. Finally, in the third part it examines the  renewable energy sources and consumption (wind energy, Hydropower, Biomass, etc) which are used to replace the conventional energy resources to lower the Green House Gas Emissions (GHG) a nd establish sustainable development within Turkey. 4.1 Conventional Energy sources  and consumption of Turkey Large increase in energy demand is observed particularly for electricity and natural gas in Turkey. In 2002 %48 of total energy demand of Turkey is supplied by domestic production. Total energy demand will hit 308 one million tone of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2020. Energy import will hit 226 Mtoe and domestic production will reach 81 Mtoe in 2020 (Ogulata, 2002). Turkey’s five main energy sources are oil, natural gas, coal, hydroelectric and renewable energy sources. Also In 2006 Turkey’s total electric production reached 175.5 milliards kWh and energy demand reached 174 milliards kWh. In this period product of electrical power acquired from natural gas (%44), from hydraulic (%25,1), from lignite (%18,4), from imported coal (%6,3), from fuel oil (%3), from pit coal (%1,6) and from naphtha (%1,1) (Soyhan, 2009). As the data lays out Turkey main energy sources are conventional energy sources like oil, coal and natural gas. And regarding Turkey’s fossil fuel reserves, which total 254 Mtoe, Turkey will continue import energy in the years ahead. It is also important to emphasize that the main distinctive property of Turkish Economy is that (Gross National Product-GNP) per capita and energy use per capita both increased 2 percent per annum (Jobert et al, 2007).  While the economy continues to develop, energy demand increase simultaneously, particularly which are produced from fossil fuels. 4.1.1 Oil Oil is the main source of energy in Turkey. In 2008 Turkey’s domestic crude oil potential was 37,3 million ton/6,72 billion barrel according to Ministry of Energy and Natural resources of Turkey’s data. Turkeys oil consumption has continued to increase and hit the amount of 690 thousand barrel per day in 2007 and surpass domestic production levels. In 2007, Russia is  Turkeys top supplier of oil. Also Iran is Turkeys second largest crude oil provider.  (United States Energy Information Administration(EIA), 2009 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Turkey/Oil.html). Table1 As demonstrated in Table 1, the gap between Turkey’s oil production and consumption was getting larger between 1990 and 2004.  Oil has the main share of %44 in total energy consumption. Despite of the target of reducing the dependance on oil lower than 40% in 10 years, new investment on oil research is very essential.  Turkey’s Petrol’s and Anonym Association (TPAO) is undertakin oil researchs in Turkey,  in addition the surrounding areas (Soyhan, 2009) 4.1.2 Natural Gas According to diversification attempts of energy sources, natural gas was newly introduced to Turkish Economy. Since 1970 natural gas contribution in energy production was increased from 0% to 20,6%. Also in 2006 %44 of electric production came from natural gas. Turkey’s natural gas resources are limited so domestic production capacity in total consumtion is 3%. In 2005 total natural gas consumtion hit 27 milliard m3. In order to close the gap between demand and production Turkey began to import natural gas from Soviet Union in 1985.  At the present Natural gas is mainly used to produce electric power. 17% of natural gas is consumed in factories as energy source and 15% is consumed in housing. In 2005 Turkey was the 7th biggest consumer in Europe. In 2020 Turkey will consume 50 billion m3 natural gas (Soyhan, 2009) 4.1.3 Coal Turkey has large reserves of coal, especially of lignite. The lignite reserves are 8.0 billion tons. The total forecasted coal  reserves are 30 billion tons (Kaygusuz, 2002). Coal is one of the primary enery source by %24 of the total sorces of the country.  Coal is used primarly for power production, cement production and in steel industry.  The Turkish government intends to increase the coal supply from 20.1 Mtoe in 1999 to 118.4 Mtoe in 2020 (Soyhan, 2009). 4.1.4. Electricity Electricity is also major energy source for industry and home usage by itself.  The energy sources that are used to generate electricity can be renewable or conventional (non-renewable like coal, oil and natural gas). But electricity is mostly generated by conventional energy sources in Turkey so it is worth to mention in this chapter. Electricity production from domestic resources is about 40% at present and will decrease to 20% by the year 2020. So remaining electricity supply for the year 2020 must be ensured by imported resources. By 2020 68% of electricity demand will be met by coal, oil and natural gas. (Salvarli, 2006) Turkey may cover the extra-required energy from of hydroelectric, natural gas and renewable sources. If all hydroelectric power used, maximum production would hit 128 milliard kWh. If all of the coal sources would be consumed it is possible to produce 120 milliard kWh electricity, with all natural gas sources the electric production may hit  335 milliard kWh. None of the plans that are mentioned can cover the electric demand for 2020, sot Turkey would import extra electricity demand from abroad (Soyhan, 2009). 4.2 Environmental impacts of Industrial and Economical Development 2008 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) produced  by the World Economic Forum ranks Turkey 72nd out of 149 countries. Additional to EPI, Environmental Vulnerability Index (EVI) puts Turkey in a 62th place among 235 countries (Baykan, 2009). On the other hand when we look at the CO2 emisions, Turkey’s CO2 emissions were at 2.87 tons in 2003, far lower than the OECD average of 11.08 tons and also Turkey’s share in world emissions was 0.81% (Akbostanci et al, 2009). Although Turkey’s contribution to CO2 emissions quite low, unplanned urbanization, industrialization, coupled with increasing population cause a big pressure on Turkey’s environmental structure and cause to increase in CO2 emissions. Turkey is 7th country amon European Uninon (EU) member contries according to carbon dioxide volume (215 million tones) in 2005. Turkey also ranks first regarding the industrial emmisions (Baykan, 2009) CO2 emissions are also important regarding environmental impact. The TURKSTAT (Turkish Statistical Institute)  data shows that amount of CO2 emissions from consuming fossil energys sources stand at 223.4 (Giga Gram-Gg) as of 2004. TURKSTAT forecasts that the amount of CO2 emissions from energy production will hit 343 Gg by 2010 and to 615 Gg by 2020. The major part of CO2 emissions come from electricity production (Telli et al, 2008). Also TPES (total primary energy supply) will almost double between 2002 and 2020, with coal accounting for an important share, rising from 26% in 2002 to 36% in 2020, principally replacing oil, which is expected to drop from 40% to 27%. Such trends will lead to a significant rise in CO2 emissions, which are projected to reach nearly 600 Mt in 2020, over three times 2002 levels (International Energy Agency. Energy Policies of IEA Contries, 2005) Table 2 Turkey’s energy need has been increasing with a rate of 6% for decades as a result of fast urbanization and industrialization. The energy distribution according to sectors is like this industry 36%, heating 35%, transportation 20%, and other areas 9%. The major energy consumers of the industrial sectors are the iron and steel sector, chemicals and petrochemicals, and textile and leather industries. Because of the scarce domestic energy sources and production capacity, Turkey depends on import primarily on oil and gas. At present, about 30% of the total energy demand is met by domestic resources. (Okay et al, 2008). According to Table 3, it can be seen that rapid growth in CO2 emissions in all major sectors between 1973 and 2002. This trend will continue to persist because of the industralization and urban development. Table 3 Turkey’s rapid economic development comes with the environmental burden. One of the major concern is air pollution. The fast growth in energy consumption, especially the excalating use of lignite, increased  SO2 emissions in power sector. On the other hand NO2 emissions are lower than SO2 emissions in Turkey, but they tend to increase fast due to high energy demand (Kaygusuz, 2002).  The main contributer of SO2 emissions is the power sector. It contributes more than 50% of total emissions. The major pollutants related with energy use are sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) and total suspenden particulates (TSP).  For Turkey these emissions come mainly from the combustion of coal, oil In the transport sector estimated growth of energy consumption is not as fast as that in the power generation and industrial sectors, the growth potential for pollutant emissions is large (M. Ocak et al, 2004). 4.3 Renewable Energy Sources and consumption of Turkey and Sustainable Development Sustainable development is a way of utilization that helps to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met for future generations (United Nations, 1987, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm). Regarding sustainable development, one of the main subject is the developing countries and their problems like in the case of Turkey.  Among the problems of the developing countries; unemployment, poverty, high population growth, migration from rural areas to the urban areas, rapid and unplanned urbanization, environmental pollution, inadequacy of infrastructure and services, excessive use of natural resources and energy can be observed (Levent, 1999) Turkey is a mainly energy importing country. Because of the increasing energy demand and consumption, pollutin is getting worse. But amongs other type of pollutions, air pollution needs immediate concern.  From this point of view renewable energy resources are one of most efficient and effective solutions for sustainable energy development and environmental pollution preventation in Turkey (Kaygusuz, 2002). As a candidate for EU membershirp, Turkey has to comply with the requriements of EU membership. EU countries will acquire 21% of their energy demand from renewable energy sources by the year 2010 which is mentioned in directive 2001/77/EC (27 March 2001) on Promotion of Electiricty Produced from Renewable Energy Sources in the International Electricity Market (Ozgur, 2008). Turkey has considerable potential for renewable energy sources and environmental technoligies. In fact Turkey has significant reserves of renewable energy sources. According to year 2000 data renewable energy production represented about 9.51 Mtoe and renewables are the second largest domestic energy source after coal. Slightly less than two-thirds of this production is supplied by biomass and animal waste; another one-third is supplied by hydropower and about 0.5% of the total is produced from geothermal, wind and solar sources (Kaygusuz, 2002). 4.3.1 Hydropower Turkey is poor regarding the main energy sources like oil and natural gas but has substantial hydropower potential. It is the second largest energy source in Turkey. Hydroelectric potential in Turkey is nearly 1% of the world potential, 16% of the European potential. Nearly 65% of hydroelectric potential are still not converted to energy (Soyhan, 2009) The Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources  (MENR) plans to expand hydro capacity to 35 000 Mwe (Mega Watt Electric) by the year 2020. Also goverment plans to construct 332 more hydro plants in long term. If the plans are achievedi the total number of plants reach to 485, and more than 19 GW (Giga Watt) of capacity to hydro system. The another importan project relating with hydro power is GAP (South-eastern Anatolia Project). It covers one tenth of Turkey’s total lan area. After it is complete GAP will add 7476 MW. All of these planned developments cost US$ 30.  Main advantages of hydro power are renewable source of energys, not polute the environment, operaiton cost is low billion (Nalan et al, 2009). 4.3.2 Solar Energy Because of the geographic location, Turkey has rich solar potential. Turkey with its average annual sunshine duration of 2610 h and an average solar intensity of 3.6 kWh. As Turkey lies near the sunny belt between 36 and 42 ºN latitudes, most of the locations in Turkey receive rich solar energy. Average annual temperature is 18–20  ºC on the south coast, falls down to 14–16 ºC on the west coast, and fluctuates 4–18 ºC in the central parts (Soyhan, 2009). The installed solar collecter area  was recorded as 7,5 million m2 in 2001 and 10 million m2 in 2004. From these collectors, commonly used in Mediterranean and Aegean regions, heat energy about 290 and 375 ktoe/year was provided in 2002 and 2004 respectively.  On the other hand PV (photovoltaic solar cells) and solar collectors used to produce electric energy from solar energy have high installing cost so no economical usage is available today.  Because of the economical and technical restraints only 5% of the technical potential is economically available for electiricty generation (Ozgur, 2009). 4.3.3 Wind Energy Wind energy is one of the most widely used renewable source of electricty around the world. In Turkey, the western, northern and south eastern coasts of Anatolia are identified as most favorable areas for wind power generation with an annual average wind speed and power density of about 2.5 m/s and 25.8 W/m2. Technical wind potential of Turkey is given as 88,000 GW and the economic potential is forecasted as 10,000MW. The current production situation of wind energy projects is between 727.96 and 817.96 MW. The main wind energy projects are concentrated in the Aegean (16 projects) and Meditrranean (9 projects). The installed capacity of wind energy is expected to reah 600 MW by 2010 and 1000 MW by 2020.  (Nalan et al, 2009) 4.3.4 Geothermal Amongst the most environmental friendly powers geothermal energy has a special place. It produces electricity with about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a natural gas-fueled power plant produces, and with small amount of the nitrous oxide or sulphur-bearing gases. Turkey has 170 number of geothermal surface where fluids are over than 49 ºC. C ¸anakkale-Tuzla, Kutahya-Simav, Aydin Salavatli, Aydin-Germencik, Denizli-Kizildere, Manisa-Salihli-Caferbeyli, Izmir Seferihisar, Dikili, and Denizli Golemezli are convenient to produce electricity while the rest are convenient only for instant usage. There are 51,600 housing equivalent heating is already accessible in Turkey and the thermal power hit 493 MWt. Furthermore totally 194 thermal springs are accessible for health tourism in Turkey equal to 327 MWt. According to world data Turkey is the fourth country using capacity with 820 MWt. Thermal potential hit nearly 2600 MWt. Probable geothermal volume is about 31,500 MWt in Turkey. It shows that  30% of the total houses (five million houses) can be heated by geothermal sources (equivalent to 32 billion cubic meters natural gas) in Turkey. In 2005, electricity production volume was got to 185 MWe and by building new geothermal electric plants, Turkey is planning to get 500 MWe in 2010 and 1000 MWe in 2020 (Soyhan,2009) 4.3.5 Biomass Biomass is a renewable energy source in which biological material acquired from living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels. Biomass is generally plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce heat. For instance, forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings and wood chips may be used as biomass. Biomass also contains plant or animal matter used for production of fibers or chemicals. Biomass may also contain biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It eleminates organic material such as fossil fuel which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum (Wikipedia, 2009, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass) The biomass fuel period has near zero net emissions of CO2. But it is hard to gather large quantities of biomass wastes because of their scattered nature. The accesibility of some types of biomass is seasonal. On the other hand annual productions of most biomass are volatile between years depending on climate conditions. Biomass is also hard and costly to transport (Nalan et al; 2009) At present Turkey’s major renewable source is biomass and animal waste (67.4% of TPES) but anticipated to decline in share and absolute terms in the future as the convenience and options of oil, gas, coal, or electrical heating and cooking become available. Turkey’s total retrievable bioenergy capacity was 196.7 TWh (16.92 Mtoe) in 1998 out of which 55.9 TWh (4.81 Mtoe) was from crop residues, 50 TWh (43 Mtoe) from forestry and wood processing residues, 48.3 TWh (41.6 Mtoe) from firewood, 27.3 TWh (23.5 Mtoe) from animal wastes, and 15.1 TWh (13 Mtoe) from municipality wastes (Soyhan, 2009) 5. Kyoto Protocol and Beyond: Position of Turkey The threat of global warming and climate change has deepened in late 1980s. A main source of global warming was increased GHG (CO2 emissions, in particular), the first response was the adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which was issued at the Rio Summit of 1992. According the UNFCCC the Annex-I countries dedicated, on a voluntary basis, to limit their gaseous emissions to 1990 levels. The OECD (1992) and EU countries further became a member to form the Annex-II bloc and complied to provide technical and financial assistance to those countries that remained outside the Annex-I to aid their environmental policies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Telli, 2008) After UNFCCC agreement, 38 industrialized nation have compromised on the Kyoto Protocol to limit GHG emissions in December 1997.  The agreement which is bound by the law of nations requires worldwide GHG emissions to be cut by 5,2% percent compared to 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. Additional to this, the Kyoto protocol allows emission trading. Each country can have credit for GHG reductions achieved in another member country by Joint Implementation (JI) and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). These instrument provides access to trading oppotunities with non-member countries (i.e the less developed world) (Hackl et al, 1999). 5.1. Turkey’s Position Turkey which is the member of the OECD was initialy listed in both Annexes-I and II of the UNFCCC in 1992. But imposing for its special circumstances, Turkey did not become a member of the Convention. The major difference between Annex I and Annex II was that the countries with economies in transition to free market in Central and Eastern Europe were included in Annex I, but not in Annex II. During the negotiations on the UNFCCC, Turkey objected to being included in both Annexes and it continued its reservation to the Annexes after the Convention had been adopted. Turkey did not ratify the UNFCCC. For Turkey, its inclusion in Anexes I and II was problematic because the country’s per capita GHG emissions were much lower than those in the EU (almost a factor three less) and its economic profile too much different from the other Annex II countries to be able to commit itself to technology and financial transfers to developing countries. Eventually, Turkey requested the Conference of the Parties (COP) to recognise its special circumstances within Annex I. This resulted in Decision 26/CP.7 taken by COP-7 in 2001. Following that decision, Turkey officially announced that it would accede to the UNFCCC by publishing Law No.4990 in the Official Gazette on 16 October 2003. The official accession took place on 24 May 2004. (Joint Implementation Quarterly, 2007). Turkey also ratified the Kyoto Protocol on 5th of Februrary 2009, but Protocol does not put an additional load on Turkey until 2012. Turkey was not a party to the convention adopted in 1992, when the Kyoto Protocol was negotiated, and it is not currently included in the agreements Annex B, which includes 39 countries that are obliged to reduce their greenhouse emissions to 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 (World Wildlife Fund, 2009) Turkey signed the protocol because Turkey wants to join the talks that shape the plan after the Kyoto Protocol’s commitment period (2008-2012). 5.2 Beyond the Kyoto Protocol: Copenhagen After the Kyoto Protocol biggest problem is to find a solution of sharin global emissions reduction between fast devoloping countries like China and India and industrialised regions like US and Europe.  In December 2007, goverment representatives from 190 countries  agreed to work out a new climate treaty by the end of 2009 (UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, 7-18 December 2009). If the parties agreed upon on new deal, it would need to come into force before January 2013.  The main issues are long-term targets for cutting emissions and reverse dangerous climate change impacts. Addition to that the introduction of a technology-transfer mechanism to permit developing countries to act towards low-carbon economies. (Euractiv, 2009, http://www.euractiv.com/en/climate-change/climate-change-road-copenhagen/article-180706) Before UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009, the main problem is funding for climate chage and adaptation in deceloping countries. The countries in the industrialisation phase insist that already developed countries have a historical responsibility for climate change. According to this less developed countries want to get assist from developed countiries in acquiring technologies needed to stop GHG. On the other hand developed countries like The EU members and US want to developing countries to join by compiling national emission reduction strategies before they give any money under the agreement for technology development. The other importan problem is the level of each party’s contribution to emissiond reduction. According to the figures  by the UNFCCC which are published on 11 August 2009, the emission reduction limits for industrialised countries would be in a 15-21% cut from 1990 levels. But the most important thing is that these levels exclude the US, which did not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. US would water down the overall goal as it only plans a return to 1990 emission levels by 2020 in its draft climate bill that pledges to cut emissions by 17% from 2005 levels (Euractiv, 2009, http://www.euractiv.com/en/climate-change/bonn-climate-talks-augur-badly-copenhagen-summit/article-184601) Both developed countries and major developing countries including Turkey, have be quick to address its binding commitments on GHG emissions  untill the next UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009 (Pamukcu, 2008). 6. European Union Environmental Acquis There was no particular adaption regarding environmental protection in the agreements that establish the European Union. On the other hand, according to the major target of the Europen Union that promotes the living condition of the human kind, common attention is needed for the environment.  Another aspect to promote the environmental policies in European Union is that the environmental policies and regulations applied by each member separately can harm the quality of free competition (Atilgan, 2007). â€Å"Environment Acquis† is the organ of European law targeted the environment. Environment law includes horizontal or cross cutting legislation (for instance, Environmental Impact Assessment), and the entry of â€Å"Framework Directives† (e.g., air, waste, water) to better combine laws for the same environmental area. Applying of the Acquis into national laws is a operation includes acceptence of specific binding legal measures (e.g., quality and technical standards, testing and notification requirements) and country-specific decisions on optional and recommended legal measures (Journey to a Cleaner Future, The World Bank, 2007 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTECAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/511168-1191448157765/CleanerFutureRoadmap.pdf). In 1993, EU constituted â€Å"Copenhagen Criteria† inculiding â€Å"acquis communautaire† in the Copenhagen Summit. Acquis communautaire is formed of 31 topics inwhich the environment is 22th. EU assesses the adoption process of the candidate country in progress reports according to â€Å"acquis communautaire† including environment. The environmental acquis consist of several sub sections. First, Horizontal legislation of environmental acquis includes 6 main parts they are,  environmental impact assessment (EIA); accession to environmental information; reporting; the European Environment Agency; the Loan Instrument for the Environment (LIFE) and associated policy; and civil protection. Except horiziontal legislation, EU environmental acquis has 8 main legislation covering wide range of environmental areas. These are, water quality, air quality,  waste material management ,protection of nature, the prevention of industrial pollution and on risk management, chemical substances and genetically mutated organisms, noise, nuclear safety and precautions against radiation (Kayikci, 2005) In 1998, the European Council decided to combine EU Environment Law more emphatically with national government’s strategies, activating the â€Å"Cardiff Process.† The Cardiff Process concentrates on nine major sectors and has concluded in development of new environment-associated directives. According to these directives, implementation is more directly on sectoral authorities rather than the environment administration. As a result, the Environment Acquis is introducing not only possibilities for sustainable development and growth in Europe, but also complications and obstacles for implementation. Implementation needs an combined approach with government administration that includes coordination mechanisms across government, local responsibility and action, public participation, and accountability of state institutions. The EU also has constituted an Emissions Trading Directive in 2003 that brought a new cap and trade policy for carbon emissions, which necessitates each Member State to comply with the EU on a national allowance plan and introduce administrative systems to enable internal trade of carbon permit allowances. Two of the â€Å"heavy investment† directives under the Environment Acquis—the Industrial Pollution and Prevention Control (IPPC) Directive and the Large Combustion Plant (LCP) Directive introduces upgrades in air pollution control technologies and equipment in large industrial polluters. The private sector would normally afford improvement costs, except for state-owned industries (Journey to a Cleaner Future, The World Bank, 2007 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTECAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/511168-1191448157765/CleanerFutureRoadmap.pdf). In 2006 The European Union introduced an ambitious target to limit its GHG emissions, by 2020, to 20% below the level of 199 0; and call the rest of the industrialised countries and the less developed world to join to the Kyoto Protocol (Telli, 2008) 7. Harmonization of Environmental Policies of Turkey with European Union As for Turkey, complying with the environmental acquis and implementation are problematical. In order to comply with the acquis Turkey has to undertake a large number of expensive implementation. Additional to that, implementation has impact on competitiveness and resource that are used and needed by other importan social requirements (Van Ooik et al, 2009). According to The 2008 Turkey’s Pogress Report lays out the major areas relating adoption and tne implementation the environmental acquis. Regarding horizontal legislation, Turkey adopted most of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) directive, but methods for consulting the public and trans-boundary consultations are not fully adjusted. Turkey signed the Kyoto Protocol but The Emissions Trading Directive has not been transfered. A GHG emissions trading scheme has not yet been constituted. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive also is at an early phase. There is no breakthrough transferring the acquis on environmental liability, public contribution and public admission to environmental information (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf)   The Energy Efficiency Law (EEL) of Turkey was improved according to Turkey’s missions of adopting the EU directives. Turkey expected to realise 25–30% savings in total energy consumption with the law which was came into force on 2007. The law utilises the efficient use of energy and adresses the administrative structuring, energy auditing, financial instruments and incentives, awareness raising and the establishment of an Energy Service Company (ESCO) market for energy efficiency (EE) services (Okay et al, 2008) Regarding air quality, Turkey made good adjusments relating to air quality framework legislation. The administrative potential for regional air quality has been enhanced by building a clean air centre in Marmara but there is no progress in the field of acquis on emissions of volatile organic compounds, on the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels or on national emission ceilings (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf) Some adjustments are made relating to the waste management acquis, although a national waste management plan is still insufficient. Also in the field of water quality, adjustments with the aquis is insufficient, but there is a little progress (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf). In the field of nature protection, Turkey got into line with the acquis regarding establishment and management of zoos but the level of implementation is still very low. A law on nature protection and implementing legislation on birds and habitats have not yet been internalised. A draft relating to a biodiversity strategy and action plan have been arranged, but not yet internalised by the government (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf). There is no progress in the field of industrial pollution control and risk management. Turkey got in the line with some provisions of the Seveso II Directive and with the Large Combustion Plants and Waste Incineration Directives (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/ Evaluation of Turkeys Energy Consumption and Resources Evaluation of Turkeys Energy Consumption and Resources 4. Energy and Environmental outlook of Turkey Energy is accepted as a most important factor in economic development. On the other hand environmental impacts of industrial and economical development becomes more evident in recent years. In order to mitigate the environmental effects of industrial and economical development is to take long term solutions for sustainable development. Therefore, this chapter explains the main characteristics of Turkey’s general energy outlook and environmental indicators. It starts begin to lay out the diversity of Turkey’s conventional energy resources and level of energy consumption (oil, coal, natural gas, etc) including electricity production and consumption. In the second part it analyses environmental impacts of industrial and economical development. Finally, in the third part it examines the  renewable energy sources and consumption (wind energy, Hydropower, Biomass, etc) which are used to replace the conventional energy resources to lower the Green House Gas Emissions (GHG) a nd establish sustainable development within Turkey. 4.1 Conventional Energy sources  and consumption of Turkey Large increase in energy demand is observed particularly for electricity and natural gas in Turkey. In 2002 %48 of total energy demand of Turkey is supplied by domestic production. Total energy demand will hit 308 one million tone of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2020. Energy import will hit 226 Mtoe and domestic production will reach 81 Mtoe in 2020 (Ogulata, 2002). Turkey’s five main energy sources are oil, natural gas, coal, hydroelectric and renewable energy sources. Also In 2006 Turkey’s total electric production reached 175.5 milliards kWh and energy demand reached 174 milliards kWh. In this period product of electrical power acquired from natural gas (%44), from hydraulic (%25,1), from lignite (%18,4), from imported coal (%6,3), from fuel oil (%3), from pit coal (%1,6) and from naphtha (%1,1) (Soyhan, 2009). As the data lays out Turkey main energy sources are conventional energy sources like oil, coal and natural gas. And regarding Turkey’s fossil fuel reserves, which total 254 Mtoe, Turkey will continue import energy in the years ahead. It is also important to emphasize that the main distinctive property of Turkish Economy is that (Gross National Product-GNP) per capita and energy use per capita both increased 2 percent per annum (Jobert et al, 2007).  While the economy continues to develop, energy demand increase simultaneously, particularly which are produced from fossil fuels. 4.1.1 Oil Oil is the main source of energy in Turkey. In 2008 Turkey’s domestic crude oil potential was 37,3 million ton/6,72 billion barrel according to Ministry of Energy and Natural resources of Turkey’s data. Turkeys oil consumption has continued to increase and hit the amount of 690 thousand barrel per day in 2007 and surpass domestic production levels. In 2007, Russia is  Turkeys top supplier of oil. Also Iran is Turkeys second largest crude oil provider.  (United States Energy Information Administration(EIA), 2009 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Turkey/Oil.html). Table1 As demonstrated in Table 1, the gap between Turkey’s oil production and consumption was getting larger between 1990 and 2004.  Oil has the main share of %44 in total energy consumption. Despite of the target of reducing the dependance on oil lower than 40% in 10 years, new investment on oil research is very essential.  Turkey’s Petrol’s and Anonym Association (TPAO) is undertakin oil researchs in Turkey,  in addition the surrounding areas (Soyhan, 2009) 4.1.2 Natural Gas According to diversification attempts of energy sources, natural gas was newly introduced to Turkish Economy. Since 1970 natural gas contribution in energy production was increased from 0% to 20,6%. Also in 2006 %44 of electric production came from natural gas. Turkey’s natural gas resources are limited so domestic production capacity in total consumtion is 3%. In 2005 total natural gas consumtion hit 27 milliard m3. In order to close the gap between demand and production Turkey began to import natural gas from Soviet Union in 1985.  At the present Natural gas is mainly used to produce electric power. 17% of natural gas is consumed in factories as energy source and 15% is consumed in housing. In 2005 Turkey was the 7th biggest consumer in Europe. In 2020 Turkey will consume 50 billion m3 natural gas (Soyhan, 2009) 4.1.3 Coal Turkey has large reserves of coal, especially of lignite. The lignite reserves are 8.0 billion tons. The total forecasted coal  reserves are 30 billion tons (Kaygusuz, 2002). Coal is one of the primary enery source by %24 of the total sorces of the country.  Coal is used primarly for power production, cement production and in steel industry.  The Turkish government intends to increase the coal supply from 20.1 Mtoe in 1999 to 118.4 Mtoe in 2020 (Soyhan, 2009). 4.1.4. Electricity Electricity is also major energy source for industry and home usage by itself.  The energy sources that are used to generate electricity can be renewable or conventional (non-renewable like coal, oil and natural gas). But electricity is mostly generated by conventional energy sources in Turkey so it is worth to mention in this chapter. Electricity production from domestic resources is about 40% at present and will decrease to 20% by the year 2020. So remaining electricity supply for the year 2020 must be ensured by imported resources. By 2020 68% of electricity demand will be met by coal, oil and natural gas. (Salvarli, 2006) Turkey may cover the extra-required energy from of hydroelectric, natural gas and renewable sources. If all hydroelectric power used, maximum production would hit 128 milliard kWh. If all of the coal sources would be consumed it is possible to produce 120 milliard kWh electricity, with all natural gas sources the electric production may hit  335 milliard kWh. None of the plans that are mentioned can cover the electric demand for 2020, sot Turkey would import extra electricity demand from abroad (Soyhan, 2009). 4.2 Environmental impacts of Industrial and Economical Development 2008 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) produced  by the World Economic Forum ranks Turkey 72nd out of 149 countries. Additional to EPI, Environmental Vulnerability Index (EVI) puts Turkey in a 62th place among 235 countries (Baykan, 2009). On the other hand when we look at the CO2 emisions, Turkey’s CO2 emissions were at 2.87 tons in 2003, far lower than the OECD average of 11.08 tons and also Turkey’s share in world emissions was 0.81% (Akbostanci et al, 2009). Although Turkey’s contribution to CO2 emissions quite low, unplanned urbanization, industrialization, coupled with increasing population cause a big pressure on Turkey’s environmental structure and cause to increase in CO2 emissions. Turkey is 7th country amon European Uninon (EU) member contries according to carbon dioxide volume (215 million tones) in 2005. Turkey also ranks first regarding the industrial emmisions (Baykan, 2009) CO2 emissions are also important regarding environmental impact. The TURKSTAT (Turkish Statistical Institute)  data shows that amount of CO2 emissions from consuming fossil energys sources stand at 223.4 (Giga Gram-Gg) as of 2004. TURKSTAT forecasts that the amount of CO2 emissions from energy production will hit 343 Gg by 2010 and to 615 Gg by 2020. The major part of CO2 emissions come from electricity production (Telli et al, 2008). Also TPES (total primary energy supply) will almost double between 2002 and 2020, with coal accounting for an important share, rising from 26% in 2002 to 36% in 2020, principally replacing oil, which is expected to drop from 40% to 27%. Such trends will lead to a significant rise in CO2 emissions, which are projected to reach nearly 600 Mt in 2020, over three times 2002 levels (International Energy Agency. Energy Policies of IEA Contries, 2005) Table 2 Turkey’s energy need has been increasing with a rate of 6% for decades as a result of fast urbanization and industrialization. The energy distribution according to sectors is like this industry 36%, heating 35%, transportation 20%, and other areas 9%. The major energy consumers of the industrial sectors are the iron and steel sector, chemicals and petrochemicals, and textile and leather industries. Because of the scarce domestic energy sources and production capacity, Turkey depends on import primarily on oil and gas. At present, about 30% of the total energy demand is met by domestic resources. (Okay et al, 2008). According to Table 3, it can be seen that rapid growth in CO2 emissions in all major sectors between 1973 and 2002. This trend will continue to persist because of the industralization and urban development. Table 3 Turkey’s rapid economic development comes with the environmental burden. One of the major concern is air pollution. The fast growth in energy consumption, especially the excalating use of lignite, increased  SO2 emissions in power sector. On the other hand NO2 emissions are lower than SO2 emissions in Turkey, but they tend to increase fast due to high energy demand (Kaygusuz, 2002).  The main contributer of SO2 emissions is the power sector. It contributes more than 50% of total emissions. The major pollutants related with energy use are sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) and total suspenden particulates (TSP).  For Turkey these emissions come mainly from the combustion of coal, oil In the transport sector estimated growth of energy consumption is not as fast as that in the power generation and industrial sectors, the growth potential for pollutant emissions is large (M. Ocak et al, 2004). 4.3 Renewable Energy Sources and consumption of Turkey and Sustainable Development Sustainable development is a way of utilization that helps to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met for future generations (United Nations, 1987, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm). Regarding sustainable development, one of the main subject is the developing countries and their problems like in the case of Turkey.  Among the problems of the developing countries; unemployment, poverty, high population growth, migration from rural areas to the urban areas, rapid and unplanned urbanization, environmental pollution, inadequacy of infrastructure and services, excessive use of natural resources and energy can be observed (Levent, 1999) Turkey is a mainly energy importing country. Because of the increasing energy demand and consumption, pollutin is getting worse. But amongs other type of pollutions, air pollution needs immediate concern.  From this point of view renewable energy resources are one of most efficient and effective solutions for sustainable energy development and environmental pollution preventation in Turkey (Kaygusuz, 2002). As a candidate for EU membershirp, Turkey has to comply with the requriements of EU membership. EU countries will acquire 21% of their energy demand from renewable energy sources by the year 2010 which is mentioned in directive 2001/77/EC (27 March 2001) on Promotion of Electiricty Produced from Renewable Energy Sources in the International Electricity Market (Ozgur, 2008). Turkey has considerable potential for renewable energy sources and environmental technoligies. In fact Turkey has significant reserves of renewable energy sources. According to year 2000 data renewable energy production represented about 9.51 Mtoe and renewables are the second largest domestic energy source after coal. Slightly less than two-thirds of this production is supplied by biomass and animal waste; another one-third is supplied by hydropower and about 0.5% of the total is produced from geothermal, wind and solar sources (Kaygusuz, 2002). 4.3.1 Hydropower Turkey is poor regarding the main energy sources like oil and natural gas but has substantial hydropower potential. It is the second largest energy source in Turkey. Hydroelectric potential in Turkey is nearly 1% of the world potential, 16% of the European potential. Nearly 65% of hydroelectric potential are still not converted to energy (Soyhan, 2009) The Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources  (MENR) plans to expand hydro capacity to 35 000 Mwe (Mega Watt Electric) by the year 2020. Also goverment plans to construct 332 more hydro plants in long term. If the plans are achievedi the total number of plants reach to 485, and more than 19 GW (Giga Watt) of capacity to hydro system. The another importan project relating with hydro power is GAP (South-eastern Anatolia Project). It covers one tenth of Turkey’s total lan area. After it is complete GAP will add 7476 MW. All of these planned developments cost US$ 30.  Main advantages of hydro power are renewable source of energys, not polute the environment, operaiton cost is low billion (Nalan et al, 2009). 4.3.2 Solar Energy Because of the geographic location, Turkey has rich solar potential. Turkey with its average annual sunshine duration of 2610 h and an average solar intensity of 3.6 kWh. As Turkey lies near the sunny belt between 36 and 42 ºN latitudes, most of the locations in Turkey receive rich solar energy. Average annual temperature is 18–20  ºC on the south coast, falls down to 14–16 ºC on the west coast, and fluctuates 4–18 ºC in the central parts (Soyhan, 2009). The installed solar collecter area  was recorded as 7,5 million m2 in 2001 and 10 million m2 in 2004. From these collectors, commonly used in Mediterranean and Aegean regions, heat energy about 290 and 375 ktoe/year was provided in 2002 and 2004 respectively.  On the other hand PV (photovoltaic solar cells) and solar collectors used to produce electric energy from solar energy have high installing cost so no economical usage is available today.  Because of the economical and technical restraints only 5% of the technical potential is economically available for electiricty generation (Ozgur, 2009). 4.3.3 Wind Energy Wind energy is one of the most widely used renewable source of electricty around the world. In Turkey, the western, northern and south eastern coasts of Anatolia are identified as most favorable areas for wind power generation with an annual average wind speed and power density of about 2.5 m/s and 25.8 W/m2. Technical wind potential of Turkey is given as 88,000 GW and the economic potential is forecasted as 10,000MW. The current production situation of wind energy projects is between 727.96 and 817.96 MW. The main wind energy projects are concentrated in the Aegean (16 projects) and Meditrranean (9 projects). The installed capacity of wind energy is expected to reah 600 MW by 2010 and 1000 MW by 2020.  (Nalan et al, 2009) 4.3.4 Geothermal Amongst the most environmental friendly powers geothermal energy has a special place. It produces electricity with about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a natural gas-fueled power plant produces, and with small amount of the nitrous oxide or sulphur-bearing gases. Turkey has 170 number of geothermal surface where fluids are over than 49 ºC. C ¸anakkale-Tuzla, Kutahya-Simav, Aydin Salavatli, Aydin-Germencik, Denizli-Kizildere, Manisa-Salihli-Caferbeyli, Izmir Seferihisar, Dikili, and Denizli Golemezli are convenient to produce electricity while the rest are convenient only for instant usage. There are 51,600 housing equivalent heating is already accessible in Turkey and the thermal power hit 493 MWt. Furthermore totally 194 thermal springs are accessible for health tourism in Turkey equal to 327 MWt. According to world data Turkey is the fourth country using capacity with 820 MWt. Thermal potential hit nearly 2600 MWt. Probable geothermal volume is about 31,500 MWt in Turkey. It shows that  30% of the total houses (five million houses) can be heated by geothermal sources (equivalent to 32 billion cubic meters natural gas) in Turkey. In 2005, electricity production volume was got to 185 MWe and by building new geothermal electric plants, Turkey is planning to get 500 MWe in 2010 and 1000 MWe in 2020 (Soyhan,2009) 4.3.5 Biomass Biomass is a renewable energy source in which biological material acquired from living, or recently living organisms, such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels. Biomass is generally plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce heat. For instance, forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings and wood chips may be used as biomass. Biomass also contains plant or animal matter used for production of fibers or chemicals. Biomass may also contain biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It eleminates organic material such as fossil fuel which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum (Wikipedia, 2009, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass) The biomass fuel period has near zero net emissions of CO2. But it is hard to gather large quantities of biomass wastes because of their scattered nature. The accesibility of some types of biomass is seasonal. On the other hand annual productions of most biomass are volatile between years depending on climate conditions. Biomass is also hard and costly to transport (Nalan et al; 2009) At present Turkey’s major renewable source is biomass and animal waste (67.4% of TPES) but anticipated to decline in share and absolute terms in the future as the convenience and options of oil, gas, coal, or electrical heating and cooking become available. Turkey’s total retrievable bioenergy capacity was 196.7 TWh (16.92 Mtoe) in 1998 out of which 55.9 TWh (4.81 Mtoe) was from crop residues, 50 TWh (43 Mtoe) from forestry and wood processing residues, 48.3 TWh (41.6 Mtoe) from firewood, 27.3 TWh (23.5 Mtoe) from animal wastes, and 15.1 TWh (13 Mtoe) from municipality wastes (Soyhan, 2009) 5. Kyoto Protocol and Beyond: Position of Turkey The threat of global warming and climate change has deepened in late 1980s. A main source of global warming was increased GHG (CO2 emissions, in particular), the first response was the adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which was issued at the Rio Summit of 1992. According the UNFCCC the Annex-I countries dedicated, on a voluntary basis, to limit their gaseous emissions to 1990 levels. The OECD (1992) and EU countries further became a member to form the Annex-II bloc and complied to provide technical and financial assistance to those countries that remained outside the Annex-I to aid their environmental policies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Telli, 2008) After UNFCCC agreement, 38 industrialized nation have compromised on the Kyoto Protocol to limit GHG emissions in December 1997.  The agreement which is bound by the law of nations requires worldwide GHG emissions to be cut by 5,2% percent compared to 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. Additional to this, the Kyoto protocol allows emission trading. Each country can have credit for GHG reductions achieved in another member country by Joint Implementation (JI) and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). These instrument provides access to trading oppotunities with non-member countries (i.e the less developed world) (Hackl et al, 1999). 5.1. Turkey’s Position Turkey which is the member of the OECD was initialy listed in both Annexes-I and II of the UNFCCC in 1992. But imposing for its special circumstances, Turkey did not become a member of the Convention. The major difference between Annex I and Annex II was that the countries with economies in transition to free market in Central and Eastern Europe were included in Annex I, but not in Annex II. During the negotiations on the UNFCCC, Turkey objected to being included in both Annexes and it continued its reservation to the Annexes after the Convention had been adopted. Turkey did not ratify the UNFCCC. For Turkey, its inclusion in Anexes I and II was problematic because the country’s per capita GHG emissions were much lower than those in the EU (almost a factor three less) and its economic profile too much different from the other Annex II countries to be able to commit itself to technology and financial transfers to developing countries. Eventually, Turkey requested the Conference of the Parties (COP) to recognise its special circumstances within Annex I. This resulted in Decision 26/CP.7 taken by COP-7 in 2001. Following that decision, Turkey officially announced that it would accede to the UNFCCC by publishing Law No.4990 in the Official Gazette on 16 October 2003. The official accession took place on 24 May 2004. (Joint Implementation Quarterly, 2007). Turkey also ratified the Kyoto Protocol on 5th of Februrary 2009, but Protocol does not put an additional load on Turkey until 2012. Turkey was not a party to the convention adopted in 1992, when the Kyoto Protocol was negotiated, and it is not currently included in the agreements Annex B, which includes 39 countries that are obliged to reduce their greenhouse emissions to 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 (World Wildlife Fund, 2009) Turkey signed the protocol because Turkey wants to join the talks that shape the plan after the Kyoto Protocol’s commitment period (2008-2012). 5.2 Beyond the Kyoto Protocol: Copenhagen After the Kyoto Protocol biggest problem is to find a solution of sharin global emissions reduction between fast devoloping countries like China and India and industrialised regions like US and Europe.  In December 2007, goverment representatives from 190 countries  agreed to work out a new climate treaty by the end of 2009 (UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, 7-18 December 2009). If the parties agreed upon on new deal, it would need to come into force before January 2013.  The main issues are long-term targets for cutting emissions and reverse dangerous climate change impacts. Addition to that the introduction of a technology-transfer mechanism to permit developing countries to act towards low-carbon economies. (Euractiv, 2009, http://www.euractiv.com/en/climate-change/climate-change-road-copenhagen/article-180706) Before UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009, the main problem is funding for climate chage and adaptation in deceloping countries. The countries in the industrialisation phase insist that already developed countries have a historical responsibility for climate change. According to this less developed countries want to get assist from developed countiries in acquiring technologies needed to stop GHG. On the other hand developed countries like The EU members and US want to developing countries to join by compiling national emission reduction strategies before they give any money under the agreement for technology development. The other importan problem is the level of each party’s contribution to emissiond reduction. According to the figures  by the UNFCCC which are published on 11 August 2009, the emission reduction limits for industrialised countries would be in a 15-21% cut from 1990 levels. But the most important thing is that these levels exclude the US, which did not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. US would water down the overall goal as it only plans a return to 1990 emission levels by 2020 in its draft climate bill that pledges to cut emissions by 17% from 2005 levels (Euractiv, 2009, http://www.euractiv.com/en/climate-change/bonn-climate-talks-augur-badly-copenhagen-summit/article-184601) Both developed countries and major developing countries including Turkey, have be quick to address its binding commitments on GHG emissions  untill the next UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009 (Pamukcu, 2008). 6. European Union Environmental Acquis There was no particular adaption regarding environmental protection in the agreements that establish the European Union. On the other hand, according to the major target of the Europen Union that promotes the living condition of the human kind, common attention is needed for the environment.  Another aspect to promote the environmental policies in European Union is that the environmental policies and regulations applied by each member separately can harm the quality of free competition (Atilgan, 2007). â€Å"Environment Acquis† is the organ of European law targeted the environment. Environment law includes horizontal or cross cutting legislation (for instance, Environmental Impact Assessment), and the entry of â€Å"Framework Directives† (e.g., air, waste, water) to better combine laws for the same environmental area. Applying of the Acquis into national laws is a operation includes acceptence of specific binding legal measures (e.g., quality and technical standards, testing and notification requirements) and country-specific decisions on optional and recommended legal measures (Journey to a Cleaner Future, The World Bank, 2007 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTECAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/511168-1191448157765/CleanerFutureRoadmap.pdf). In 1993, EU constituted â€Å"Copenhagen Criteria† inculiding â€Å"acquis communautaire† in the Copenhagen Summit. Acquis communautaire is formed of 31 topics inwhich the environment is 22th. EU assesses the adoption process of the candidate country in progress reports according to â€Å"acquis communautaire† including environment. The environmental acquis consist of several sub sections. First, Horizontal legislation of environmental acquis includes 6 main parts they are,  environmental impact assessment (EIA); accession to environmental information; reporting; the European Environment Agency; the Loan Instrument for the Environment (LIFE) and associated policy; and civil protection. Except horiziontal legislation, EU environmental acquis has 8 main legislation covering wide range of environmental areas. These are, water quality, air quality,  waste material management ,protection of nature, the prevention of industrial pollution and on risk management, chemical substances and genetically mutated organisms, noise, nuclear safety and precautions against radiation (Kayikci, 2005) In 1998, the European Council decided to combine EU Environment Law more emphatically with national government’s strategies, activating the â€Å"Cardiff Process.† The Cardiff Process concentrates on nine major sectors and has concluded in development of new environment-associated directives. According to these directives, implementation is more directly on sectoral authorities rather than the environment administration. As a result, the Environment Acquis is introducing not only possibilities for sustainable development and growth in Europe, but also complications and obstacles for implementation. Implementation needs an combined approach with government administration that includes coordination mechanisms across government, local responsibility and action, public participation, and accountability of state institutions. The EU also has constituted an Emissions Trading Directive in 2003 that brought a new cap and trade policy for carbon emissions, which necessitates each Member State to comply with the EU on a national allowance plan and introduce administrative systems to enable internal trade of carbon permit allowances. Two of the â€Å"heavy investment† directives under the Environment Acquis—the Industrial Pollution and Prevention Control (IPPC) Directive and the Large Combustion Plant (LCP) Directive introduces upgrades in air pollution control technologies and equipment in large industrial polluters. The private sector would normally afford improvement costs, except for state-owned industries (Journey to a Cleaner Future, The World Bank, 2007 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTECAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/511168-1191448157765/CleanerFutureRoadmap.pdf). In 2006 The European Union introduced an ambitious target to limit its GHG emissions, by 2020, to 20% below the level of 199 0; and call the rest of the industrialised countries and the less developed world to join to the Kyoto Protocol (Telli, 2008) 7. Harmonization of Environmental Policies of Turkey with European Union As for Turkey, complying with the environmental acquis and implementation are problematical. In order to comply with the acquis Turkey has to undertake a large number of expensive implementation. Additional to that, implementation has impact on competitiveness and resource that are used and needed by other importan social requirements (Van Ooik et al, 2009). According to The 2008 Turkey’s Pogress Report lays out the major areas relating adoption and tne implementation the environmental acquis. Regarding horizontal legislation, Turkey adopted most of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) directive, but methods for consulting the public and trans-boundary consultations are not fully adjusted. Turkey signed the Kyoto Protocol but The Emissions Trading Directive has not been transfered. A GHG emissions trading scheme has not yet been constituted. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive also is at an early phase. There is no breakthrough transferring the acquis on environmental liability, public contribution and public admission to environmental information (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf)   The Energy Efficiency Law (EEL) of Turkey was improved according to Turkey’s missions of adopting the EU directives. Turkey expected to realise 25–30% savings in total energy consumption with the law which was came into force on 2007. The law utilises the efficient use of energy and adresses the administrative structuring, energy auditing, financial instruments and incentives, awareness raising and the establishment of an Energy Service Company (ESCO) market for energy efficiency (EE) services (Okay et al, 2008) Regarding air quality, Turkey made good adjusments relating to air quality framework legislation. The administrative potential for regional air quality has been enhanced by building a clean air centre in Marmara but there is no progress in the field of acquis on emissions of volatile organic compounds, on the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels or on national emission ceilings (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf) Some adjustments are made relating to the waste management acquis, although a national waste management plan is still insufficient. Also in the field of water quality, adjustments with the aquis is insufficient, but there is a little progress (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf). In the field of nature protection, Turkey got into line with the acquis regarding establishment and management of zoos but the level of implementation is still very low. A law on nature protection and implementing legislation on birds and habitats have not yet been internalised. A draft relating to a biodiversity strategy and action plan have been arranged, but not yet internalised by the government (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/press_corner/key-documents/reports_nov_2008/turkey_progress_report_en.pdf). There is no progress in the field of industrial pollution control and risk management. Turkey got in the line with some provisions of the Seveso II Directive and with the Large Combustion Plants and Waste Incineration Directives (Turkey 2008 Progress Report, EU, 2008, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/

Prize Based Challenges

A Challenge is a proven approach to solving important problems by leveraging large communities of people who can bring new expertise and diverse perspectives to bear. Challenges are an effective tool for our clients to help foster innovation and solve problems as a pay-for-performance resource coupled with world class technical experts. Executing a Prize Based Challenge Our team often employs a two phase approach to executing Prize Based Challenge efforts for our clients.This phased approach allows our clients to launch their open innovation efforts rapidly though two initial ideation challenges and use the results to help tailor the more complex Theoretical challenges in subsequent phases. The structure and timeshare of the three phases of execution for this approach are detailed below. PHASE 1: Ideation Challenges (Day 1 – Day 90) Phase 1 consists of training and planning for the overall effort as well as the execution of two ideation challenges.Ideation challenges are the m ost basic form of prize based challenges which pose a broad question formulated to obtain access to new ideas. Ideation challenges have been used successfully by NASA, AFAR and other DoD clients. There are few constraints on solver submission format (non-technical and non-exclusive licensing given to Seekers for guarantee of one winner per challenge), prize values are generally small (?$5,000 – $10,000).Ideation challenges provide a good opportunity for our clients to at once gather new ideas about an existing problem, familiarize themselves with the challenge process, and create publicity for subsequent follow on challenges. IA – Challenge Development Workshop: Phase 1 will begin with a challenge placement workshop. This day long workshop includes familiarization with the Open Innovation approach, an understanding of the challenge development process and establishing goals/expectations for the challenge outcomes.It also provides an opportunity for BBC/XX Subject Matte r Experts to work together with our clients to brainstorm and formulate the first two Ideation and/or Theoretical (see Phase 2 description of Theoretical) challenges to be launched. Following the workshop the BBC/ICC team will continue to work with the client to finalize the challenge question Roding, make solver channel/publicity decisions, and specify intellectual property treatment for the first challenges.If during the workshop more important technical (non-alteration) challenges are identified as a priority for DES, the BBC/XX team will prioritize those and make recommendations for advancing these challenges in Phase B – Initial Challenges Launch: Once the decisions noted above are complete, the BBC/ICC team posts, publicizes and hosts the initial challenges for a period of 30-60 days (30 days for Ideation and 60 days for Theoretical/technical challenges) on the XX littoral. During this period, the BBC/ICC team provides constant monitoring of the challenge site for activ ity and submissions.The initial ideation challenges generally launch on or about Day 10 after formulation begins. ICC – Evaluation of Submissions: After the 30-60 day posting period, the BBC/ICC team work to categorize, prioritize and rank the solutions submitted by the solver community. BBC/ICC Subject Matter Experts specifically selected for their experience and knowledge of the challenge technical area will evaluate each of the submissions and use criteria established during the Challenge Development Workshop to present a rank ordered set of potential solutions.Ranked solution sets are provided to our clients on or about Day 45 for Ideation and day 75 for theoretical challenges. ID- Award and Close: Following receipt of the solution sets, our clients generally have a period of 7 days to review and select winning solutions for both challenges and determine prize awards. Ideation challenges carry a guaranteed award starting at $5,000, Theoretical challenges are awarded only if specific success criteria is met. The BBC/ICC team engages the distribution of awarded prizes to selected solvers.A close out report on each of the challenges is also completed by the BBC/ICC team and provided to the client. This report includes recommendations for subsequent prize competitions that are executed in Phase 2. Award Distribution and final report are completed 30 days following the closeout of the challenge awards, approximately days 75-105 depending on challenge type. PHASE 2: Follow-on Challenges (Day 91 – Day -210) Phase 2 consists of planning and executing multiple challenges including Theoretical Challenges.Theoretical challenges are a more complex and detailed type of prize based challenge which seeks solutions to more specific technical problems. Theoretical challenges have detailed solution requirements that need to be met for an award and the client evaluates submissions on a theoretical basis. Theoretical challenge awards are traditionally posted at higher dollar value than Ideation challenges and generally start at around $10,000.Awards for Theoretical challenges are not guaranteed, they are paid based on Solvers meeting specific success criteria posted in the challenge statement. The BBC/ICC team works closely with our clients during the challenge formulation process to determine the appropriate dollar value of the prize for each challenge based on the nature of the challenge itself. AAA – Challenge Formulation: Phase 2 begins with a half day planning meeting between BBC/ICC team and our clients to determine the preferred approach to launching the next set of challenges.The team will use the knowledge and insight gained from the initial challenges to further customize the second round of challenges to the goals of their overall open innovation effort. Final decisions on the number, timing, challenge type and other organizational requirements will determine the time frame of completion but should be challenge formulatio n should be complete by Day 100, or 10 days from the beginning of formulation of challenges identified in this Phase. B – Challenges Launch: Following these decisions, the BBC/ICC team posts, publicizes and hosts challenges for a specified period on the XX platform. Because Theoretical challenges are more complex and require more effort from the solver in their submissions, they be hosted for a minimum of 60 days. During this period, the BBC/ICC team will monitor the site activity. Depending on the determinations made during challenge formulation, the challenges can run consecutively or concurrently but Phase 2 challenges should begin launching on or about Day 110. C – Evaluation of Submissions: During and after the posting period, the BBC/ICC team works to categorize, prioritize and rank the solutions submitted by the solver community. BBC/ICC Subject Matter Experts specifically selected for their experience and knowledge of the challenge technical area evaluate each of the bionomist and use criteria established during challenge formulation to present a rank ordered set of potential solutions. Ranked solution sets are provided to the client within 15 days of each challenge close.The ordering and sequence of the challenges in this phase will determine the final date of completion. AD – Award and Close: Following receipt of the solution sets, our clients generally have a period of 30 days to review and select winning solutions for each Theoretical challenge and determine prize awards. Once the client has determined winners and prize allotments, the BBC/ICC team manages the distribution of awarded prizes to selected solvers.

Information Processing and Learning Disabilities Essay

The body gathers information through five senses of sight, smell, hearing, taste and touch. However, in order to use the data or information that has been gathered by these senses one must constantly put the senses into constant use. After the body has collected information through the five senses it is taken to the brain, which in turn recognizes it, interprets it, understands it, responds to it and stores it. This is a continuous process which can be repeated even a thousand times in any given day. Newell (1990)] Information processing is responsible for the coordination and performance of the tasks that we carry out in any given day, from taking a shower to learning in school or participating in a sport. Discussion Within the field of cognitive psychology, information processing is the thinking and reasoning about mental processes, envisioning them, in the same way as a computer software runs on a computer machine. According to Ulric Neisser, who also goes as the father of the term ‘cognitive psychology’ human beings can be compared to dynamic information processing systems with mental operations that are identical to those of computer machines and that can be described in computational terms. [Neisser, 1967] The mind is the software while the brain is the hardware. The human mind processes information through the application of logical rules and strategies, that like a computer, the human mind has got a limited capacity for the amount and even the nature of information it can process, and that just as the computer can be made to process more information through the change or overhaul of its hardware and software, learners can become great thinkers if changes can be made in their brains through the use of authentic rules and strategies of learning. [Hetherington & Parke, 199] According to Atkinson and Shriffin in their ‘stage theory’ model, the human memory processes and stores information in three stages. Information is processed in a serial and discontinuous manner as it transits from one stage to the other. [Atkinson & Shriffin, 1968] Craik and Lockhart in their ‘levels-of-processing’ theory posit that learners make use of various levels of elaboration as they process information. This is achieved through a succession of levels beginning from perception, through attention, to labeling, and lastly meaning. Craik & Lockhart, 1972] Another theory posits that information is processed simultaneously by several different parts of memory system as opposed to sequential processing. [Goleman, 1995] Lastly, Rumelhart and McClelland in their ‘connectionic’ model propose that information is stored in multiple locations in the form of network connections in the brain. It is grounded on the wisdom that the more connected an idea is the more the chances of it to be remembered. Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986; Scientific American, 1999] In a learning situation, the measure of receiving and organizing information, remembering it, and expressing it will obviously differ from one learner to the other. There will always be discrepancies in reading, writing, comprehension, and reasoning among the learners. Those learners who experiences difficulties in organizing, remembering, and expressing information will definitely experience difficulties in reading, writing, comprehension, and reasoning. Such learners are considered as having learning disabilities: they tend to experience difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. They face difficulties in learning new skills, they have poor memory, and they tend to confuse basic words, experience difficulties in connecting letters and sounds, among other difficulties. Lerner (2000)] Since the process of information gathering occurs through the application of logical rules and strategies learners without disabilities are bound to organize, remember, and express information with great ease than those with disabilities. Learners with disabilities will experience difficulties in making use of various levels of elaboration as Craik and Lockhart reasons. They will experience snags in transferring information from one stage to another. In a nutshell the process of information processing is complex and therefore it requires proper learning strategies to make it a success. It requires the best learning strategies that are tied to the needs and interests of students and that are based on varied types of learning styles to enhance maximum learning. [Ekwensi et al, 2006] For instance, before the process of learning begins, a teacher should always aim at gaining the learners attention by using cues to signal when you are ready to begin and keep moving around the class while using voice variations. Always remember to bring to the mind of the learners prior learned content that is relevant to present content. This can be done through a brief discussion or a brief question and answer session aimed at forming a link with the present lesson content. This should be followed by a brief discussion of the main points of what is about to be learned. Learners may also be provided with handouts to get a deeper glimpse of the content. The teaching/learning process should now progress from what is already known to what is not known, from simple to complex. Bransford et al, 2000] The teacher should present the content in chunks while giving the learners opportunities to connect new information to information already known. In order to enhance maximum retaining of the learned content the teacher should also show the learners coding tips, e. g. , through the use of acronyms, simple songs, construction of silly sentences using the first letter of each word in the list and mental imagery techniq ues such as the keyword method. The teacher should also provide repetitive teaching and learning: by stating important points many times using different methods; this helps to build Short Term Memory (STM). [Miller (1956)] Include item on each day’s lesson from previous lesson or even periodically review previously learned skills for building Long Term Memory (LTM). The teacher should also provide enough opportunities for learning and over-learning of important concepts and skills; methods such as daily drills may be applied for arithmetic facts. Huitt (2003)] The teacher should aim at building both STM and LTM. The STM will help to increase the amount of time the learners pay attention to external stimulus and form some meaning out of it. According to Miller (1956) individuals can process up to 7 plus or negative units at any given time, therefore the teacher should aim at helping the learners to identify the most important information to learn at any given time. This can be achieved through proper organiza tion and repetition. To achieve organization the concept of chunking can be applied whereby information will be presented in bits representing units that can be easily remembered. To achieve repetition, the teacher should try to making the learners repeat what they have learned, especially after some time – few minutes (when forgetting begins). The process of learning should also be made sequential, relevant, and transitional. On the other hand, the LTM helps in the recalling of information learned long time ago particularly when such information is arranged and organized using the declarative, procedural, and imagery structures. The declarative memory will help in storing information about things that are talked about in classroom; [Stillings et al, 1987] the procedural memory will store information that touches on ways of doing things practically while the imagery memory will store information inform of images. This program helps to build ‘higher-order-thinking’ and self esteem. In order to build LTM the teacher should apply the ‘Direct Instruction’ method of teaching that provides constant interaction between the students and the teacher. Nonetheless, teachers should make sure that they teach small amount of material in sequential steps, they should make it possible for the learners to use as many of their senses as it is practically possible and that the content material should seek to build on, and enhance the learners’ prior knowledge. The teacher should also make the instructional language more simple but not the content by reinforcing on the main ideas through paraphrasing, repeating, and the use of stimulating learning aids such as charts, maps, and pictures. If possible, the use of technology should be encouraged as learners have been noted to feel free and productive particularly when they are working independently in front of a computer, rather than in crowded classrooms. [Singleton, & Terrill, 1995/96] Conclusions In order to address information processing problems among learners with disabilities, a teacher should understand the common difficulties that they face so as to be able to employ the appropriate learning strategies. Learners with disabilities they experience the inability to manage their time well, they have spelling problems, they cannot follow if the teacher speaks too fast, they are slow readers, they have difficulties in recalling mathematical symbols, and sometimes they may portray impulsive behavior. This calls for a lot of patience on the part of the teacher when dealing with them. To achieve this, the teacher should watch, listen and talk to the learners to establish their strengths and weaknesses, and to use interest-arousing stimulus in the instructional process because learners are more likely to be attentive when the teacher uses a stimulus

Benefits And Benefits Of Soliciting Internships - 973 Words

Approving Internships Internships give people a good opportunity for getting a job in the future. Internship students are not getting paid from the company who has hired them. Even though, people do not like internships they will get the experience from that job. Having this internship is helping people understand how the real life job is. People are even building a reputation with others. For example, people are getting noticed from others companies. Internships helps students to take the next step up in being an employee. Taking internships with no pay has its advantages for the students due to the fact that experience is received. It is said that students learn by their own mistakes. From personal experience it is beneficial to take internships even if that means people are not getting paid. While taking an internship I was learning what the job description really was. I had realized what it was like to be on my feet for 8+ hours, and seeing patients constantly until the day was finally over. I have learned how important it was to be punctual, responsible, and very cautious. The most advantage in taking this unpaid internship was definitely the experience it provided for my knowledge, although I attended college and received a degree, when you are in a situation on your own you begin to realize that taking that internship was the best decision. Now according to NACE’s Class of 2015 Student Survey, 62.8 percent of respondents took part in an internship. 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